Crew Resource Management and Psychological Safety

Crew Resource Management (CRM) and the Centrality of Psychological Safety

CRM was developed in the 1970s and operationalised psychological safety in safety-critical, complex environments.

Crew Resource Management (CRM) recognised, as a result of accidents such as Tenerife in 1977, that many (possibly close to *all*) accidents stemmed not from technical failures alone but from flawed communication, power gradients in the cockpit, and cultural norms that discouraged subordinates from questioning superiors.

CRM offered a structured approach to preventing such pitfalls, focusing on teamwork, open communication, and collaborative decision-making. Although early CRM pioneers did not explicitly use the term psychological safety, the essence of that concept—ensuring that every member of a team feels safe to speak up, challenge assumptions, and share information—has always sat at the heart of CRM. Today, CRM is a global standard in aviation, having dramatically improved safety records and influencing industries as far-ranging as healthcare, maritime operations, and nuclear power. This article explores the history and evolution of CRM, major catalysts that propelled it forward, its current adoption, the critical link to psychological safety, and potential future directions.

Find out more about CRM For Non-Aviation Teams workshops and training.

Our interactive and engaging training combines real-world examples, group exercises, and evidence-based practices to ensure participants leave with both conceptual clarity and practical tools.

Origins and Early Evolution

The seeds of CRM were sown in the 1970s, a decade marked by several high-profile aviation disasters that, upon investigation, revealed glaring human factors failures. Perhaps the most infamous of these was the Tenerife disaster in 1977, where two Boeing 747s collided on a fog-shrouded runway, resulting in the deadliest aviation accident in history. Miscommunication, time pressure, and a steep cockpit hierarchy—particularly on the KLM aircraft, where an experienced captain overrode subtle concerns from his first officer—combined to produce catastrophic outcomes. Tenerife highlighted how leadership styles, ambiguous phrasing, and unchallenged assumptions could be just as lethal as any mechanical fault.

Other accidents further underscored the need for structured approaches to teamwork. Eastern Air Lines Flight 401 (1972) and United Airlines Flight 173 (1978), for instance, each involved crews so fixated on a particular problem (e.g., a landing gear indicator) that they neglected fundamental flight parameters, leading to crashes that were entirely avoidable. These tragedies were the impetus behind the 1979 NASA workshop on human factors in aviation, which brought together industry leaders, pilots, and psychologists to study how to better manage “resources” in the cockpit—including the voices, knowledge, and expertise of everyone on board.

Early training programs stemming from these discussions were initially called Cockpit Resource Management. Their central goal was to break down the rigid hierarchies that caused junior crew members to stay silent, even when they sensed impending danger. They also promoted standardized communications, where team members were encouraged—indeed, obligated—to confirm instructions and question decisions if something seemed off. Notably, as these ideas spread throughout the 1980s, the scope of CRM expanded. Airlines began to see the importance of including not only pilots but also flight attendants, dispatchers, ground staff, and maintenance personnel in the resource-management framework. Hence, the term “Crew Resource Management” took hold, reflecting the broader constellation of people who contribute to flight operations.

Catalysts for Rapid Adoption

By the mid-to-late 1980s, many large U.S. carriers had incorporated CRM into their training regimens. Federal agencies like the FAA took an active role in encouraging or mandating CRM training, offering advisory circulars and integrating new human-factors requirements into airline certification standards. Across the Atlantic, European airlines such as British Airways, Lufthansa, and KLM (the latter was directly impacted by Tenerife) adopted CRM principles, spurred on by accidents like the Kegworth disaster (1989) in the UK. In that incident, a British Midland Boeing 737-400 crashed when the flight crew mistakenly shut down the wrong engine, partly due to cockpit confusion, poor communication, and questionable decision-making under stress. Events like Kegworth reinforced the lesson that technical expertise alone was not sufficient; the “human factor” was often the decisive variable between near-miss and fatal crash.

Meanwhile, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) published guidelines promoting CRM globally. By the 1990s, CRM had become a near-universal expectation, with many airlines embedding it within their standard operating procedures and recurrent training programs. This broad acceptance was remarkably swift for a training paradigm that involved cultural and behavioral change. Nonetheless, the data were clear: better crew coordination was reducing errors, preventing tragedies, and saving lives.

The Inherent Link to Psychological Safety

From the start, CRM was about more than just checklists and communication protocols. Its philosophical bedrock rested on the idea that anyone in the cockpit—be it the captain, co-pilot, or flight attendant—has the right and responsibility to speak out if they perceive a safety concern. Today, organizational psychologists refer to this environment of open, respectful candor as psychological safety: a climate where individuals feel confident that their voices will be heard and valued, free from ridicule or retaliation.

Early CRM programs, while revolutionary, did not typically use the term psychological safety. Instead, they relied on expressions like “flattening the authority gradient,” “creating an open cockpit culture,” or “breaking down hierarchical barriers.” But the essence of these phrases is the same: if junior crew members feel intimidated or fear retribution for speaking out, they might hesitate to question a captain’s actions—potentially leading to disastrous oversights. Psychological safety ensures that all team members become active participants in maintaining safety, rather than passive followers who might notice but ignore impending hazards.

This link between psychological safety and CRM becomes even more explicit when looking at its more modern iterations, often described as “Threat and Error Management” (TEM). TEM encourages flight crews to proactively identify, avoid, and mitigate threats and errors. For this system to function optimally, every pair of eyes and ears in the cockpit must feel comfortable voicing their concerns the moment an anomaly is detected. In other words, psychological safety is an essential precondition for effective TEM.

Current State of Adoption

In the 21st century, CRM is firmly entrenched as a global aviation standard. Nearly every major airline mandates CRM training, updating it regularly to incorporate fresh insights from incident analyses, technological advances, and human factors research. Simulators, line-oriented flight training (LOFT), and scenario-based exercises immerse flight crews in realistic crises, forcing them to rely on clear communication and teamwork under stress. In debriefings, the idea of a blame-free culture—another hallmark of psychological safety—encourages flight crews to admit mistakes, analyze them, and learn collectively.

Moreover, CRM’s principles have leapt far beyond the cockpit. Healthcare professionals, for instance, have adopted “Crisis Resource Management” to improve teamwork in operating theaters and emergency rooms, aiming to reduce surgical errors and other preventable incidents. Maritime operations have introduced “Bridge Resource Management,” harnessing similar concepts to reduce the risk of collisions at sea. In each context, the underlying logic remains consistent: build systems and cultures that empower everyone to speak up, share expertise, and collaboratively solve problems.

That said, total uniformity in how CRM is taught and practiced does not exist. Resource constraints, cultural differences, and varying regulatory rigor mean that some airlines and regions have implemented CRM more thoroughly than others. Nonetheless, few question its proven ability to enhance safety, with many regulators mandating it through licensing requirements.

The Future of CRM

Looking ahead, Crew Resource Management will likely continue to evolve in parallel with technological advancements and shifting work cultures. As aircraft become more automated, the interplay between human operators and machine systems grows increasingly complex. A major challenge is ensuring that pilots remain effectively engaged and situationally aware, even as automation handles routine tasks. When unexpected failures occur, a CRM-trained and psychologically safe team is more apt to handle them effectively—distributing workload and catching any missteps early.

Additionally, CRM’s future may involve deeper collaboration between flight crews and an expanding network of ground-based support personnel—such as remote monitoring teams, advanced maintenance diagnostics, and sophisticated dispatch systems. In such environments, psychological safety is perhaps even more crucial, given the varied roles, backgrounds, and expertise levels interacting to manage a single flight operation. Ensuring these diverse participants feel comfortable voicing a concern or clarifying ambiguous information could be the difference between timely error correction and a critical oversight.

Furthermore, cultural adaptation remains a priority. In regions with traditionally high power-distance norms—where subordinates are less accustomed to challenging authority—CRM principles might need more explicit reinforcement. Localizing CRM training materials to address these cultural nuances can better ensure that the spirit of open, respectful communication truly takes root rather than existing as a mere corporate directive.

In embracing these developments, training programs might become more holistic, explicitly teaching concepts of emotional intelligence, conflict resolution, and leadership styles that foster trust. As flight operations grow increasingly global, inclusive programs that address language barriers, cultural expectations, and the complexities of multinational crews could further refine CRM. One can imagine advanced simulators or even virtual-reality environments that replicate intense multi-team scenarios, with real-time feedback mechanisms guiding participants toward better communication strategies and decision-making.

Crew Resource Management transformed the aviation industry

Crew Resource Management has transformed the aviation industry, shifting the focus from individual pilot skill alone to a collaborative mindset where human factors, communication patterns, and interpersonal dynamics are recognized as core safety components. From the wake-up call of Tenerife in 1977 to the countless training sessions in modern flight simulators, CRM’s legacy is one of continuous learning, adaptation, and improvement. While early CRM pioneers did not explicitly label their training as promoting “psychological safety,” they were inherently embedding those principles from day one, challenging deeply ingrained hierarchies and encouraging inclusive, transparent communication.

Today, psychological safety is increasingly recognized as a key factor in any high-performing team, and aviation has been at the forefront of applying these insights in life-and-death situations. The fact that CRM has influenced industries well outside of aviation only underscores its power. Moving forward, the aviation community can continue refining CRM to address new technological and cultural challenges, ensuring that the cockpit—and the broader operational network—remains a place where every person is empowered to speak up, collaborate, and maintain an unflagging commitment to safety. By keeping psychological safety at the core of CRM’s evolution, the industry safeguards not just the aircraft in flight, but also the precious lives and livelihoods that depend on it.

CRM has evolved and improved over the succeeding decades. To say “there’s no evidence for psychological safety” or “we don’t know how to do it” completely disregards an entire field and decades of practice and research.

Photo by Marina Hinic: https://www.pexels.com/photo/black-multicolored-control-panel-lot-726233/